以上單詞均可用于指不經(jīng)金錢而直接交換商品或服務(wù)等, 稱為“易貨貿(mào)易”。其中，barter為最正式和典型術(shù)語，常指不使用任何具抽象價(jià)值的中介物，也不用任何中間人，自己直接以物換物，如農(nóng)夫用糧食交換靴子（barter grain for boots)[1]。 倘若農(nóng)夫不是為自己使用而換取靴子，而是用靴子交換其他物 品或用于其他目的，此時(shí)則可以說他是想trade the boots with sb else for sth he really wants[2]。在 bartering 和 trading 中，人們必 須 exchange one item for another。swap 可用作等同 barter,但沒有 barter 正式。
 
[1] "Barter is the most formal and most specific of these. It means a system of exchange in which goods and services are traded without the use of money as a medium of exchange. "Cf. Douglas Greenwald, The Concise McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Modem Economics, at p. 23，McGraw-Hill, Inc. (1983).
[2] Cf. The Editors of The Reader's Digest, Use the Right Word, at p. 37，The Reader's Digest Association Proprietary Ltd. (1971 ).
[3] Id. at p. 37.